The Dominion of Newfoundland
England's oldest colony, the cold, windswept island of Newfoundland remains a loyal dominion of the English Crown. The story of the island since colonization has been tied to the commercial fishing industry. In all areas, from the economy, to the music, food and drink, to the distribution of people in the state, the sea dominates Newfoundland life. Its people, largely descendants of English, Irish, and French fishermen, have come together to create a distinct Newfer culture, though divisions and tensions remain over language and religion.
History
Early colonies
Newfoundland's Grand Banks probably began to attract European fishermen from the 15th century. The fishery, and the coasts and bays of the island, were frequented by ships from all over western Europe. Sir Humphrey Gilbert formally took possession of the island in the name of England in 1583; two years later, Sir Bernard Drake led an attack known as Drake's Sweep that essentially wiped out the Spanish and Portuguese fishing fleets, clearing the way for French and English domination not just of Newfoundland, but ultimately of the North American continent.
Newfoundland's indigenous people, the Beothuk, were devastated by European diseases. Their relations with the newcomers were also generally poor, and many were killed by European violence. The Beothuk responded by withdrawing to the interior, cutting them off from the sea as a source of food. Their population declined. Some intermarriage means that many Newfoundlanders have Beothuk ancestry, but as a distinct people they essentially disappeared.
Various Englishmen attempted to establish colonies on the coasts of Newfoundland. They all failed, but they resulted in a permanent population of English people on the island. The population was small but persistent and continued to grow over the years. Despite this, the English parliament formally banned settlement on Newfoundland from the late 17th century, bowing to pressure of commercial fishing companies who wanted complete control. Through most of the 18th century, the only government that England acknowledged was maintained by the naval squadron and the captains of the fishing vessels.
Newfoundland's indigenous people, the Beothuk, were devastated by European diseases. Their relations with the newcomers were also generally poor, and many were killed by European violence. The Beothuk responded by withdrawing to the interior, cutting them off from the sea as a source of food. Their population declined. Some intermarriage means that many Newfoundlanders have Beothuk ancestry, but as a distinct people they essentially disappeared.
Various Englishmen attempted to establish colonies on the coasts of Newfoundland. They all failed, but they resulted in a permanent population of English people on the island. The population was small but persistent and continued to grow over the years. Despite this, the English parliament formally banned settlement on Newfoundland from the late 17th century, bowing to pressure of commercial fishing companies who wanted complete control. Through most of the 18th century, the only government that England acknowledged was maintained by the naval squadron and the captains of the fishing vessels.
English colony
The fishing regime grew more and more difficult to maintain. The dynamics of the industry were changing, and more fishermen were choosing to live on the island rather than sail there every year. The more successful of them were growing into a prosperous merchant class. To support the industry, thousands of laborers were immigrating from Ireland.
In addition to the changing economy and growing population, there was growing pressure from New Englanders, in particular those from the five Loyalist states of the Dominion of New England. From the 1780s, a growing number were coming to Newfoundland looking to catch fish themselves or buy them from local merchants.The annual commodore-governors responded inconsistently, some allowing the New Englanders access to Newfoundland's trade, and others shutting them out. The Dominion states began to clamor for a resident government that could enact a consistent policy allowing their use of the island.
Finally, conflict with revolutionary France made it urgent to have a permanent presence on Newfoundland. From 1793 to 1797, England and France were at war. The naval force at the island stayed throughout these years in order to defend it, and its commodore began to organize the judiciary and administration.
In 1797, England finally consented to set up a civil government for Newfoundland. The new governor began construction of a Government House, appointed judges, and began to negotiate with the New England states to establish rules whereby they could conduct trade. By 1800, the New England republics and New Netherland were also seeking opportunities in the Newfoundland fish and seal trade. Newfoundland's governor Lord Radstock began to negotiate with the Anglo-Dutch Congress, which at that time met in Boston.
War broke out in North America in 1803, interrupting Newfoundland's progress as a colony. But the end of hostilities in 1808 cleared the way for the island to govern itself and participate in the Boreoamerican alliances. One provision of the treaty was that Newfoundland and French Canada would jointly govern the territory of Labrador; this led to the construction of the first joint Anglo-French post at Red Bay in 1809. Working out the fishing rights for Americans other than Loyalists took longer, but a settlement was reached in 1817, at which time Newfoundland became a participating member of the Congress.
In addition to the changing economy and growing population, there was growing pressure from New Englanders, in particular those from the five Loyalist states of the Dominion of New England. From the 1780s, a growing number were coming to Newfoundland looking to catch fish themselves or buy them from local merchants.The annual commodore-governors responded inconsistently, some allowing the New Englanders access to Newfoundland's trade, and others shutting them out. The Dominion states began to clamor for a resident government that could enact a consistent policy allowing their use of the island.
Finally, conflict with revolutionary France made it urgent to have a permanent presence on Newfoundland. From 1793 to 1797, England and France were at war. The naval force at the island stayed throughout these years in order to defend it, and its commodore began to organize the judiciary and administration.
In 1797, England finally consented to set up a civil government for Newfoundland. The new governor began construction of a Government House, appointed judges, and began to negotiate with the New England states to establish rules whereby they could conduct trade. By 1800, the New England republics and New Netherland were also seeking opportunities in the Newfoundland fish and seal trade. Newfoundland's governor Lord Radstock began to negotiate with the Anglo-Dutch Congress, which at that time met in Boston.
War broke out in North America in 1803, interrupting Newfoundland's progress as a colony. But the end of hostilities in 1808 cleared the way for the island to govern itself and participate in the Boreoamerican alliances. One provision of the treaty was that Newfoundland and French Canada would jointly govern the territory of Labrador; this led to the construction of the first joint Anglo-French post at Red Bay in 1809. Working out the fishing rights for Americans other than Loyalists took longer, but a settlement was reached in 1817, at which time Newfoundland became a participating member of the Congress.
Dominion
Following the example of their neighboring states, Newfoundlanders were not long in demanding a representative government. This was quickly granted, and the elected assembly won control over the colony's government not long after. Tension between Catholics and Protestants defined the politics of the early years of responsible government. In 1845 it acquired the status of Dominion as England acknowledged its growing autonomy and ties to the rest of Boreoamerica.
Despite the problems of sectarianism, Newfoundland in the 19th century developed a strong sense of itself as a nation. Poems and songs celebrated its unique history, its maritime culture, its food and music. Newfoundlanders consistently opposed centralizing movements within ASB politics, even as it became economically more dependent on trade with the mainland. Investment from Canada and New England built a trans-island railroad with the hope that it would spur mining and forestry.
One way that Newfoundlanders expressed their unique identity was by emphasizing their ties to England. The Dominion government declared war on England's enemies at several points during the 19th century and sent volunteer regiments to assist in the mother country's war efforts. One example is the California Gold Wars of the 1850s, when Newfoundlanders landed at San Francisco Bay and fought in the occupation of the Contra Costa. Parliaments later in the century took away the power of states to declare war, but Newfoundland continued to raise units of volunteers to participate in operations around the Empire, at times causing conflict with Parliament as it pushed the limits of ASB law.
The great European war of the 1910s led the ASB to assert even more forcefully that the European countries could not meddle in their American dominions. Foreign warships were banned from ASB waters. This had an effect on English strategy because England had planned to use Newfoundland as a base for transatlantic naval operations. Some Newfers were upset enough that they agitated for secession, but the movement failed to take control of the General Assembly despite attracting some prominent supporters. A majority of the people were willing to tolerate the strengthening role of the confederal government.
That same act of Parliament had the effect of ending the unique status of the French Shore, a fishery along the west coast of Newfoundland where France had held on to jurisdiction over maritime affairs. Ships from other states in the ASB had been allowed to fish along the French Shore for years, but France had continued to govern it as a kind of watery colonial possession. The ban on warships implied a ban on French law enforcement, and the French Republic begrudgingly accepted an end to its jurisdiction after the war. However, French fishermen were still free to use the fishery alongside Boreoamerican vessels, and they continue to enjoy the right today.
Despite the problems of sectarianism, Newfoundland in the 19th century developed a strong sense of itself as a nation. Poems and songs celebrated its unique history, its maritime culture, its food and music. Newfoundlanders consistently opposed centralizing movements within ASB politics, even as it became economically more dependent on trade with the mainland. Investment from Canada and New England built a trans-island railroad with the hope that it would spur mining and forestry.
One way that Newfoundlanders expressed their unique identity was by emphasizing their ties to England. The Dominion government declared war on England's enemies at several points during the 19th century and sent volunteer regiments to assist in the mother country's war efforts. One example is the California Gold Wars of the 1850s, when Newfoundlanders landed at San Francisco Bay and fought in the occupation of the Contra Costa. Parliaments later in the century took away the power of states to declare war, but Newfoundland continued to raise units of volunteers to participate in operations around the Empire, at times causing conflict with Parliament as it pushed the limits of ASB law.
The great European war of the 1910s led the ASB to assert even more forcefully that the European countries could not meddle in their American dominions. Foreign warships were banned from ASB waters. This had an effect on English strategy because England had planned to use Newfoundland as a base for transatlantic naval operations. Some Newfers were upset enough that they agitated for secession, but the movement failed to take control of the General Assembly despite attracting some prominent supporters. A majority of the people were willing to tolerate the strengthening role of the confederal government.
That same act of Parliament had the effect of ending the unique status of the French Shore, a fishery along the west coast of Newfoundland where France had held on to jurisdiction over maritime affairs. Ships from other states in the ASB had been allowed to fish along the French Shore for years, but France had continued to govern it as a kind of watery colonial possession. The ban on warships implied a ban on French law enforcement, and the French Republic begrudgingly accepted an end to its jurisdiction after the war. However, French fishermen were still free to use the fishery alongside Boreoamerican vessels, and they continue to enjoy the right today.
Modern state
It was fortunate that Newfoundland stayed with the ASB, because the 1920s and 30s were devastating to its economy. The market for its fish collapsed. Many of the outports suffered so badly that it seemed likely they would be abandoned altogether. Newfoundland had to turn to the confederal government for relief and for help to sort out its tangled finances. Urban Stendahl of Christiana led the ASB's first Socialist government, and he was committed to a "Common Good" program that would channel money to rural areas and poor states like Newfoundland.
The government of Newfoundland itself came under the control of the Fishermen's Union, a party combining aspects of agrarianism (modified for a maritime society) and a socialism rather more radical than that of Stendahl. Fishermen's governments reduced the power of the merchants of St. John's, established a minimum wage and free compulsory education, and attempted to reform the fishing economy to make it more cooperative. In a dramatic about-face, Newfoundland's delegation in Parliament went from being thorny opponents of centralization to some of the closest allies of the Premier.
So Newfoundland came back from the brink, but its economy was still quite weak. Efforts to diversify the economy continued throughout the twentieth century and to the present day. As fishing has fluctuated with the market and the health of the fishery, business and tourism have slowly increased. Tourism in particular has brought benefits to some of the outports, not just to St. John's. However, the island's standard of living lags behind the central states.
Newfoundland's firm loyalism came into question after mid-century. A burst of imperial patriotism accompanying the world wars subsided, and the political landscape changed. The rise of socialism had left Newfoundland's conservative parties largely in the hands of Catholic activists, who had always been ambivalent toward the Crown. When Labrador broke away from Newfoundland and Canada to become a state in 1950, it raised questions about whether Newfoundland itself should also break away from the monarchy to pursue an identity apart from England. A growing republicanism in the 60s saw such symbolic changes as the removal of the Cross of St. George from the dominion's official flag. But republicans could never quite build a coherent plan. When they formed a Republican Party in the 80s, the main effect was that the republicans lost their voice in the major parties. Today it is a strong movement with a devoted following, but outside the main current of Newfoundland politics. Recent Governors have made a conscious effort to tie the monarchy to Newfoundland national identity. Most Newfers today are satisfied to remain a monarchy.
The government of Newfoundland itself came under the control of the Fishermen's Union, a party combining aspects of agrarianism (modified for a maritime society) and a socialism rather more radical than that of Stendahl. Fishermen's governments reduced the power of the merchants of St. John's, established a minimum wage and free compulsory education, and attempted to reform the fishing economy to make it more cooperative. In a dramatic about-face, Newfoundland's delegation in Parliament went from being thorny opponents of centralization to some of the closest allies of the Premier.
So Newfoundland came back from the brink, but its economy was still quite weak. Efforts to diversify the economy continued throughout the twentieth century and to the present day. As fishing has fluctuated with the market and the health of the fishery, business and tourism have slowly increased. Tourism in particular has brought benefits to some of the outports, not just to St. John's. However, the island's standard of living lags behind the central states.
Newfoundland's firm loyalism came into question after mid-century. A burst of imperial patriotism accompanying the world wars subsided, and the political landscape changed. The rise of socialism had left Newfoundland's conservative parties largely in the hands of Catholic activists, who had always been ambivalent toward the Crown. When Labrador broke away from Newfoundland and Canada to become a state in 1950, it raised questions about whether Newfoundland itself should also break away from the monarchy to pursue an identity apart from England. A growing republicanism in the 60s saw such symbolic changes as the removal of the Cross of St. George from the dominion's official flag. But republicans could never quite build a coherent plan. When they formed a Republican Party in the 80s, the main effect was that the republicans lost their voice in the major parties. Today it is a strong movement with a devoted following, but outside the main current of Newfoundland politics. Recent Governors have made a conscious effort to tie the monarchy to Newfoundland national identity. Most Newfers today are satisfied to remain a monarchy.
Symbols
A tricolor of green, white and rose is the modern form of a nineteenth-century religious flag used by Newfoundland's Catholics. The original flag was a verticlal tricolor, and its colors had religious significance whose precise meaning is debated and uncertain. As Newfoundland came to embrace its own nationhood, the tricolor came to represent the entire island and lose its religious associations. The colors were re-interpreted to stand for the principal ethnic groups that made up the island's population: green for the Irish, white for the French, rose for the English.
When it was adopted as the official flag of the Dominion, the colors were turned from vertical to horizontal to avoid confusion with the French Tricolore: France still actively controlled fishing along the French Shore and its ships were a frequent sight around Newfoundland, so the possibility for confusion was real. The first official flag also had a Cross of Saint George in the canton as a symbol of loyalty to England. The cross was controversial and was used inconsistently for many years. A law in the mid-20th century removed it permanently, resulting in the present-day flag of Newfoundland. The English cross alone is still often flown in Newfoundland, especially by Protestants and supporters of conservative parties.
When it was adopted as the official flag of the Dominion, the colors were turned from vertical to horizontal to avoid confusion with the French Tricolore: France still actively controlled fishing along the French Shore and its ships were a frequent sight around Newfoundland, so the possibility for confusion was real. The first official flag also had a Cross of Saint George in the canton as a symbol of loyalty to England. The cross was controversial and was used inconsistently for many years. A law in the mid-20th century removed it permanently, resulting in the present-day flag of Newfoundland. The English cross alone is still often flown in Newfoundland, especially by Protestants and supporters of conservative parties.
Newfoundland's coat of arms features lions and unicorns as symbols of England and Scotland. It is one of the continent's oldest grants of arms, dating to the early 17th century, when England and Scotland were still united under King Charles I. An elk in the crest and Beothuk people as supporters were added some time later.
Common and semi-official animal symbols include the Newfoundland dog, the Atlantic puffin, and the codfish.
Common and semi-official animal symbols include the Newfoundland dog, the Atlantic puffin, and the codfish.
Culture
English is the dominant language on the island, but it is not the only one. The fishing villages along the western shore are still mostly French-speaking, with family and social ties to Canada and Acadia. Some of the outports speak Irish, and some along the southern coast speak Mikmaq thanks to a migration of indigenous people from Acadia in the 18th century. The Catholic, Anglican, and Protestant churches play a major role in the life of the various communities. But despite differences in language and religion, Newfoundlanders all have much in common and share a common culture.
Newfoundland's isolation, its ties to England, and its blending of English, French, and Irish ways have forged a distinct culture on the island. It begins with the state's particular way of speaking English, in which the accent and vocabulary of Ireland are clearly evident. There is also a clear Celtic strain in the island's music and dance, both in the living folk customs of the outports and the artistic re-interpretations in the capital. Both the capital and some of the outports are attracting growing communities of artists and writers.
The sea continues to play a dominant role in the island's life, as the interior remains largely empty. Many of the island's distinctive foods are based around fish. The main drink of choice is screech, a kind of rum that bears witness to Newfoundland's maritime connections with the English Caribbean. Sea stories fill the island's rich folklore. Sailing, fishing, and watersport skills remain highly prized, even as the fishing industry itself employs a shrinking portion of the workforce.
Above all, Newfoundland exhibits a keen sense of its place in the Confederation and the world, its people having as strong a sense of their own nationhood as any in the ASB.
Newfoundland's isolation, its ties to England, and its blending of English, French, and Irish ways have forged a distinct culture on the island. It begins with the state's particular way of speaking English, in which the accent and vocabulary of Ireland are clearly evident. There is also a clear Celtic strain in the island's music and dance, both in the living folk customs of the outports and the artistic re-interpretations in the capital. Both the capital and some of the outports are attracting growing communities of artists and writers.
The sea continues to play a dominant role in the island's life, as the interior remains largely empty. Many of the island's distinctive foods are based around fish. The main drink of choice is screech, a kind of rum that bears witness to Newfoundland's maritime connections with the English Caribbean. Sea stories fill the island's rich folklore. Sailing, fishing, and watersport skills remain highly prized, even as the fishing industry itself employs a shrinking portion of the workforce.
Above all, Newfoundland exhibits a keen sense of its place in the Confederation and the world, its people having as strong a sense of their own nationhood as any in the ASB.